Eccentric contractions and cardiac output: How would eccentric exercise affect the heart at lower oxygen costs? A study was conducted to test how eccentric and concentric contractions affect cardiac autonomic modulation after exercise. The men (aged 18 to 30 years) were divided into four groups: concentric control, eccentric control, concentric training and eccentric training. The results concluded that resistance training (eccentric contractions) promotes strength gain. An increase in cardiac vagal modulation during recovery was also noted. [17] A contraction in performance occurs when resistance opposes muscle contraction. For example, if you are keeping a heavy truck stable, do not lift or lower it. Skeletal muscles show fascinating plasticity against repeated episodes of eccentric exercise. Among the adaptations specifically triggered by eccentric contraction, some contribute to EBR, thus aiming to protect the muscle from EIMD. A large number of theories have been proposed to explain EBR, suggesting a multifactorial origin of this adaptive process. Possible adaptations were classified as (Lindstedt et al., 2001) neural, (Abbott et al., 1952) mechanical, and (LaStayo et al., 2003b) cellular (McHugh et al., 1999a; McHugh, 2003).
Although many studies have attempted to elucidate the mechanisms behind rbE, a unified theory is not yet available. But never bet against molecular machines. It has always been clear that sarcomakers cannot explain everything about muscle behavior with actin and myosin proteins alone and that muscles can certainly use other proteins with different properties. And in fact, there is now much more evidence that another large organic molecule, titin, may explain the more enigmatic properties of eccentric contraction.3 An early buildup of leukocytes, mainly neutrophils, has been observed in the blood micro-vessels of the damaged muscle, as well as in the perimisium immediately after exercise. In moderate to severe DMDS, histological studies have consistently shown that neutrophils enter the muscle and accumulate in the damaged area 1 to 24 hours after eccentric training (Paulsen et al., 2010). It is likely that the secretion and/or passive release of chemotattractive proteins due to changes in membrane permeability are involved in the recruitment of circulating inflammatory cells. They initiate the pro-inflammatory stage by phagocytosis and by the release of proteolytic enzymes (such as elastase or myeloperoxidase) and reactive species. Later, when neutrophils are removed from the muscle, pro-inflammatory macrophages begin to accumulate. This type of macrophage, called M1, contributes to phagocytosis of damaged tissues by secreting pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.B.
TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β) and secretory inhibitors of leukocytease. Monocytes residing in tissues can also be activated after exercise, in addition to leukocytes that come from the bloodstream. Neutrophils and M1 macrophages interact with each other to regulate the pro-inflammatory response of muscle damage. Their influx into injured myofibers appears to depend on the size of the EIMD and may lead to an exacerbation of the initial cellular changes. Conversely, M2 macrophages that occur later typically produce anti-inflammatory cytokines and signaling molecules involved in muscle recovery and recovery. Large variations in healthy individuals are observed, some show a significant accumulation of leukocytes, while others have shown a very low invasion of leukocytes. In addition, the extent of the inflammatory response appears to depend on the initial exercise-induced disturbances. Minor disturbances are thought to lead to an adaptive response reported by cells, while intense eccentric actions appear to produce a more serious response resulting in secondary myofiber damage and an increased risk of necrosis.
While significant necrosis is observed after electrically stimulated contractions, segmental necrosis of the myofiber can occur without affecting the entire myofiber, even in severe cases of EIMD. Interestingly, the degree of leukocyte accumulation appears to be related to changes in muscle strength generation capacity (Paulsen et al., 2010). Therefore, measuring the decline in muscle strength after exercise, which is recognized as the best indirect marker of EIMD, can inform about the state of the muscle. On the other hand, the extent of leukocyte invasion in injured myofibers is not necessarily related to DOMS. An eccentric contraction is the movement of an active muscle as it lies under load. Eccentric training is the repeated performance of eccentric muscle contractions. For example, with a bicep loop, the action of lowering the elevator dumbbell is the eccentric phase of this exercise – as long as the dumbbell is slowly lowered instead of dropping it (that is, the biceps are in a state of contraction to control the rate of descent of the dumbbell). The peculiarities of eccentric contraction compared to other modes of contraction are at the origin of specific training adaptations.
A significant body of evidence suggests that chronic eccentric contractions promote greater gains in strength, muscle mass, and neuronal adaptations compared to concentric contractions (Reeves et al., 2009; Roig et al., 2009). The mechanisms responsible for these adaptations are highlighted by changes in gene expression. In fact, the exercise-induced adaptation process in skeletal muscle involves several signaling mechanisms that initiate transcription of specific genes that allow for subsequent translation into a number of new proteins (Coffey and Hawley, 2007). Several studies have reported that eccentric and concentric actions activate different muscle molecular pathways in humans (Kostek et al., 2007) and rats (Chen et al., 2002). Eccentric exercise has been shown to trigger the gradual activation of genes responsible for cell growth and development, which are involved in the processes of muscle cell hypertrophy. Expression levels of these genes are stimulated more strongly by eccentric effects than by isometric or concentric actions (Chen et al., 2002; Barash et al., 2004; Kostek et al., 2007), likely due to the unique mechanical load on eccentrically contracted muscles. For example, the effect of eccentric exercise in skeletal muscle was greater than concentric training for liver-like insulin-like growth factor I and mechanical growth factor (positive regulators of muscle growth) (Barash et al., 2004). It is believed that such changes in gene expression profiles are regulated by mechanical signaling pathways involving proteins sensitive to the mechanical state of muscle cells (i.e., microtubule-associated proteins or MAP proteins) (Hentzen et al., 2006). Transcriptome analyses in eccentrically trained muscles also showed significant transcriptional activity associated with the presence of leukocytes, immune-induced signaling, and adaptive remodeling of the intramuscular extracellular matrix up to 96 hours after exercise (Neubauer et al., 2014). Compared to concentric or isometric contractions, eccentric contractions appear to regulate muscle cell activity and the anabolic signaling pathway more strongly (Douglas et al., 2017). .